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In implementing crypto, it is essential to distinguish strings (of characters) from byte vectors, also known as bytestrings or byte arrays.

In most computer languages, strings store characters, not bytes, and are not adequate for (un-encoded) intermediary values, ciphertext, keys, Initialization Vectors.. even when and if adequate for plaintext. In C, characters can be signed, and 0 ends a string. In Java, strings contain 2-byte characters. In many modern languages, strings contain abstract Unicode points, or a subset of that, or their representation as bytes per UTF-8 (1 to 4 bytes per character).

The first computational step of encryption of a string is to convert it to byte vector. In modern Python practice, that can be

myString = 'Per Pythagoras: x²+y²=z²'
myByteVector = bytes(myString, 'utf-8')

which here turns a 24-character string into a 27-byte vector. It happens that with UTF-8 encoding, what an American considers a normal character takes one byte, except when it doesn’t (that’s two examples!).

Then byte vectors can be processed, XORed.. (typically, much more naturally than strings) and won't change length unexpectedly.

On decryption, the byte result needs to be changed back¹ to characters, perhaps as a string. In modern Python, the idiom can be

myString = str(myByteVector, 'utf-8')  # can cause exception!

Note: when and if a ciphertext, key, Initialization Vector.. needs to be represented as string, it should be encoded per some binary-to-text encoding, such as the popular Base64.

¹ Beware that's not always possible, e.g. when the ciphertext was altered or the deciphering key is wrong. In such case, the best outcome is an exception; others include garbage text, a beep when that's displayed, a devastating security vulnerability, execution of the HCF instruction, torn out paper on a Teletype.

In implementing crypto, it is essential to distinguish strings (of characters) from byte vectors, also known as bytestrings or byte arrays.

In most computer languages, strings store characters, not bytes, and are not adequate for (un-encoded) intermediary values, ciphertext, keys, Initialization Vectors.. even when and if adequate for plaintext. In C, characters can be signed, and 0 ends a string. In Java, strings contain 2-byte characters. In many modern languages, strings contain abstract Unicode points, or a subset of that, or their representation as bytes per UTF-8 (1 to 4 bytes per character).

The first computational step of encryption of a string is to convert it to byte vector. In modern Python practice, that can be

myString = 'Per Pythagoras: x²+y²=z²'
myByteVector = bytes(myString, 'utf-8')

which here turns a 24-character string into a 27-byte vector. It happens that with UTF-8 encoding, what an American considers a normal character takes one byte, except when it doesn’t (that’s two examples since the previous comma!).

Then byte vectors can be processed, XORed.. (typically, much more naturally than strings) and won't change length unexpectedly.

On decryption, the byte result needs to be changed back¹ to characters, perhaps as a string. In modern Python, the idiom can be

myString = str(myByteVector, 'utf-8')  # can cause exception!

Note: when and if a ciphertext, key, Initialization Vector.. needs to be represented as string, it should be encoded per some binary-to-text encoding, such as the popular Base64.

¹ Beware that's not always possible, e.g. when the ciphertext was altered or the deciphering key is wrong. In such case, the best outcome is an exception; others include garbage text, a beep when that's displayed, a devastating security vulnerability, execution of the HCF instruction, torn out paper on a Teletype.

In implementing crypto, it is essential to distinguish strings (of characters) from byte vectors, also known as bytestrings or byte arrays.

In most computer languages, strings store characters, not bytes, and are not adequate for (un-encoded) intermediary values, keys, Initialization Vectors and ciphertext even when and if adequate for plaintext. In C, characters can be signed, and 0 ends a string. In Java, strings contain 2-byte characters. In many modern languages, strings contain abstract Unicode points, or a subset of that, or their representation as bytes per UTF-8 (1 to 4 bytes per character).

The first computational step of encryption of a string is to convert it to byte vector. In modern Python practice, that can be

myString = 'Per Pythagoras: x²+y²=z²'
myByteVector = bytes(myString, 'utf-8')

which here turns a 24-character string into a 27-byte vector. It happens that with UTF-8 encoding, what an American considers a normal character takes one byte, except when it does not, like in "dad’s car".

Then byte vectors can be processed, XORed.. (typically, much more naturally than strings) and won't change length unexpectedly.

On decryption, the byte result needs to be changed back¹ to characters, perhaps as a string. In modern Python, the idiom can be

myString = str(myByteVector, 'utf-8')  # can cause exception!

Note: when and if ciphertext needs to be represented as string, it should be encoded per some binary-to-text encoding, such as the popular Base64.

¹ Beware that's not always possible, e.g. when the ciphertext was altered or the deciphering key is wrong. In such case, the best outcome is an exception; others include garbage text, a beep when that's displayed, a devastating security vulnerability, execution of the HCF instruction, torn out paper on a Teletype.

In implementing crypto, it is essential to distinguish strings (of characters) from byte vectors, also known as bytestrings or byte arrays.

In most computer languages, strings store characters, not bytes, and are not adequate for (un-encoded) intermediary values, ciphertext, keys, Initialization Vectors.. even when and if adequate for plaintext. In C, characters can be signed, and 0 ends a string. In Java, strings contain 2-byte characters. In many modern languages, strings contain abstract Unicode points, or a subset of that, or their representation as bytes per UTF-8 (1 to 4 bytes per character).

The first computational step of encryption of a string is to convert it to byte vector. In modern Python practice, that can be

myString = 'Per Pythagoras: x²+y²=z²'
myByteVector = bytes(myString, 'utf-8')

which here turns a 24-character string into a 27-byte vector. It happens that with UTF-8 encoding, what an American considers a normal character takes one byte, except when it doesn’t (that’s two examples!).

Then byte vectors can be processed, XORed.. (typically, much more naturally than strings) and won't change length unexpectedly.

On decryption, the byte result needs to be changed back¹ to characters, perhaps as a string. In modern Python, the idiom can be

myString = str(myByteVector, 'utf-8')  # can cause exception!

Note: when and if a ciphertext, key, Initialization Vector.. needs to be represented as string, it should be encoded per some binary-to-text encoding, such as the popular Base64.

¹ Beware that's not always possible, e.g. when the ciphertext was altered or the deciphering key is wrong. In such case, the best outcome is an exception; others include garbage text, a beep when that's displayed, a devastating security vulnerability, execution of the HCF instruction, torn out paper on a Teletype.

In implementing crypto, it is essential to distinguish strings (of characters) from byte vectors, also known as bytestrings of byte arrays.

In most computer languages, strings store characters, not bytes, and are not adequate for (un-encoded) intermediary values, keys, Initialization Vectors and ciphertext even when and if adequate for plaintext. In C, characters can be signed, and 0 ends a string. In Java, strings contain 2-byte characters. In many modern languages, strings contain abstract Unicode points, or a subset of that, or their representation as bytes per UTF-8 (1 to 4 bytes per character).

The first computational step of encryption of a string is to convert it to byte vector. In modern Python practice, that can be

myString = 'Per Pythagoras: x²+y²=z²'
myByteVector = bytes(myString, 'utf-8')

which here turns a 24-character string into a 27-byte vector. It happens that with UTF-8 encoding, what an American considers a normal character takes one byte, except when it does not, like in "dad’s car".

Then byte vectors can be processed, XORed.. (typically, much more naturally than strings) and won't change length unexpectedly.

On decryption, the byte result needs to be changed back¹ to characters, perhaps as a string. In modern Python, the idiom can be

myString = str(myByteVector, 'utf-8')  # can cause exception!

Note: when and if ciphertext needs to be represented as string, it should be encoded per some binary-to-text encoding, such as the popular Base64.

¹ Beware that's not always possible, e.g. when the ciphertext was altered or the deciphering key is wrong. In such case, the best outcome is an exception; others include garbage text, a beep, a devastating security vulnerability, or execution of the HCF instruction.

In implementing crypto, it is essential to distinguish strings (of characters) from byte vectors, also known as bytestrings or byte arrays.

In most computer languages, strings store characters, not bytes, and are not adequate for (un-encoded) intermediary values, keys, Initialization Vectors and ciphertext even when and if adequate for plaintext. In C, characters can be signed, and 0 ends a string. In Java, strings contain 2-byte characters. In many modern languages, strings contain abstract Unicode points, or a subset of that, or their representation as bytes per UTF-8 (1 to 4 bytes per character).

The first computational step of encryption of a string is to convert it to byte vector. In modern Python practice, that can be

myString = 'Per Pythagoras: x²+y²=z²'
myByteVector = bytes(myString, 'utf-8')

which here turns a 24-character string into a 27-byte vector. It happens that with UTF-8 encoding, what an American considers a normal character takes one byte, except when it does not, like in "dad’s car".

Then byte vectors can be processed, XORed.. (typically, much more naturally than strings) and won't change length unexpectedly.

On decryption, the byte result needs to be changed back¹ to characters, perhaps as a string. In modern Python, the idiom can be

myString = str(myByteVector, 'utf-8')  # can cause exception!

Note: when and if ciphertext needs to be represented as string, it should be encoded per some binary-to-text encoding, such as the popular Base64.

¹ Beware that's not always possible, e.g. when the ciphertext was altered or the deciphering key is wrong. In such case, the best outcome is an exception; others include garbage text, a beep when that's displayed, a devastating security vulnerability, execution of the HCF instruction, torn out paper on a Teletype.